Choosing Between Debt And Equity Finance Essay

Choosing Between Debt And Equity Finance Essay In financial decisions, the choice between debt and equity financing is one of the most difficult ones. Both types of financing have its advantages and disadvantages. Debt financing is based on borrowing finance, and incurs debts that should be repaid in a certain time. The obligations of the company include repaying the loan and paying interest on the loan until its repaid. Debt financing does not impact the ownership of the business, but might cause high debt servicing costs. On the other hand, equity financing represents the exchange of finance to a part of business ownership; this is commonly done by issuing stocks. Equity financing allows to receive investments without additional payments and does not cause financial concern of investors, like debt financing does. However, since the ownership is shared, the owners have to dilute their decisive power (Grossman Livingstone, 2009), and might even lose control of the company. For the companies, the choice of debt or equity financing is based on many factors, such as size of the company, state and dynamics of the industry, perspectives of the company, debt-to-equity ratio, debt servicing costs etc. The purpose of this essay is to consider the decision of American Superconductor Corporation to shift to equity financing from debt financing, made in 2003. AMSC case American Superconductor Corporation is a company providing wind turbine design, electrical control systems, power systems and superconductive wires (Madura, 2008). It operates mostly in Europe, North America and Pacific Asia. Before 2003, the companys investment policy was based on debt financing; however, in 2003, the decision to forgo a secured debt financing and to adopt an equity financing strategy under current market conditions (Esposito, 2003) was made. The company experienced recession in 2003; in October 2002, its stock prices have fallen to the record level of $2.25, and in 2003, they constituted about $3.36, which was very low compared even to 2002 level of $12.26 (AMSC Stock, 2010). The company needed financing, and their choice was to issue a public equity offering instead of debt financing. This decision was explained as strategic solution based on the consequences of 2003 blackouts, and CEO of American Superconductor, Greg Yurek, forecasted an increased need for their power grids and public attention to better voltage support with dynamic reactive power compensation (Esposito, 2003). The results of first six months of fiscal 2004 year seemed to prove the efficient of the decision to pursue equity financing, since no long-term debt was reported, and $17.4 million revenue in the first two quarters of the year. The company also focused on wind turbines, which were gaining popularity. Wind power in 2007, for example, became the first $30B clean energy industry (Madura, 2008). Current financial position of AMSC shows that its total revenue and gross profit values have significantly increased during the last years (2008-2010 financial information available); the companys gross margin is 39.14% compared to 32.19% in the diversified electronics industry in general (AMSC Stock, 2010). The operating margin is also higher: 14.70% compared to 5.71% industrys operating margin, the EPS is also higher (0.64) than 0.08 average (AMSC Stock, 2010). Although the financial position of AMSC is weaker than that of main competitor, ABB. Ltd., the company managed to override another major competitor, SatCon Technology Corporation. The industry provides a significant development potential, and the stocks of the company were not priced less than $10 since 2007 (AMSC Stock, 2010). Analysis of financial decision The combination of debt and equity financing impacts the companys cost of capital. Debt financing is safer for investors, while equity financing is more risky for investors, but at the same time safer for the company (Grossman Livingstone, 2009). Since debt financing creates contractual obligations, the companies should carefully consider their ability to repay the debts. Debt servicing incurs higher costs than equity financing, and if the company experiences fast growth, it might suffer from high debt servicing expenses. It has also been shown that companies with consistent profit operating in low-risk and slowly growing industries more often opt for debt financing, while companies operating in risky and rapidly changing industries as well as in volatile ones, should choose equity financing since these companies have more opportunities for investments, and would not suffer from underinvestment (Grossman Livingstone, 2009). By 2003, AMSC experienced financial problems and its stocks have dropped in price, but the conditions of the environment indicated the quick growth of interest to AMSC production. It could be forecasted that in some time the company would need significant investments and 2003-2004 was the right time to expand. If AMSC continued debt financing, its growth would be hindered by debt servicing costs and worse stock dynamics. Thus, the decision of AMSC to replace debt financing with equity financing was very appropriate in this situation. Conclusion In order to perform the choice of business financing (debt versus equity), it is necessary to consider the perspectives of the company as well as the nature and dynamics of the industry. In 2003, AMSC was experiencing financial difficulties and its stocks have significantly fallen. However, there were many opportunities for development, and the 2003 blackouts increased the interest to AMSC production. Therefore, the company had strong potential for growth, and needed strong financing source without excess cost increase. Thus, American Superconductor Corporation performed a right decision to stop debt financing, and to issue a public equity offering. The correctness of the decision can be also traced looking at further financial development of the company: AMSC is stably growing, creates new products and shows good progress compared to its competitors.

Effect Of The Multiculturalism In Europe Politics Essay

Effect Of The Multiculturalism In Europe Politics Essay The establishment of nation-state political systems has always recognized the need for coherence between different cultures and the definition of a nation as territorially united groups. However, cultural differences pose a major threat to the continued unity of many European nation-states. The political demand for acknowledgement of cultural plurality by groups of citizens, especially those who consider themselves to be minorities culturally or ethnically, has grown due to increased interest in multiculturalism in recent years. When analyzed at both scholarly and public levels, the growth of demand for governments to recognize multiculturalism stems from two origins. The first one is based on liberal theories that perceive multiculturalism as a way of protecting individual and cultural rights through the recognition of cultural and ethnic plurality. Social and political agitators of pluralism seek to retain the definition of cultures as closed units and still hope to use the concept of cultural differences as to find solutions to inequalities both politically and socially. The second one is the origin of multiculturalism based on cultural relativism which is a liberal concept that proposes that nation-states have long ignored the fact that cultures are comprised of multiple relations that go beyond political boundaries and are intended to co-exist side by side.  [1]   However with the current rise in terrorism, decreasing relevance in civic and national identity, and the likelihood of some cultural practices being against the principles of liberal states, multiculturalism has become redundant. Liberal governments of the west are gradually finding themselves unable to keep on recognizing and upholding multiculturalism especially in concepts that call for special treatment for minorities and still retain equality for all citizens. The question is why has accommodation of multiculturalism in Europe changed over the past 20 years? Addressing the dilemma of implementing equality in pluri-cultural societies of liberal nation states of Europe, this paper argues and elaborates how multiculturalism become redundant by the liberal democratic western states. Definition of Multiculturalism In political philosophy, multiculturalism is a concept that basically addresses the most appropriate way of responding to diversity in culture and religion within the society. Multiculturalism goes beyond the simple act of tolerating group differences and seeks for the treatment of minority groups as citizens on an equal level with the majority group by recognizing and positively accommodating cultural or traditional differences through the recognition of group-differentiated rights (Kymlicka, 1995). These group-differentiated rights are espoused by minority groups for example people who are exempted from certain rules or laws due to their cultural or religious beliefs or those seeking for language accommodations in public institutions like schools or voting procedures.  [2]  The group-differentiated rights are also sought by indigenous groups or minority nations for the sake of self determination. This is parallel to nationalism. In its precise definition, multiculturalism is an umbrella term that involves moral and political recognition of disadvantaged and frequently discriminated groups like African Americans in the United States, women worldwide, and other groups like gays, and the disabled. However, multiculturalism theorists have always emphasized on immigrants of a country who make up ethnic or religious minorities because of their differences. Some examples of such groups include Muslims in most Western Europe countries and minority nations in some European countries like the Catalans, Romans and the Basque in Spain. Young (1990) identifies three aspects associated with multiculturalism. These are identity, difference, and recognition politics aimed at bringing back value to formerly disrespected identities and altering patterns of representation and communication that had previously marginalized minority groups.  [3]  The concept has also a lot to do with economic interests besides political motives. It is a platform used to remedy political and economic injustices that people claim to have suffered because they belong to a minority status. Blum (1992) differentiates antiracism and multiculturalism by stating that the former deals with victimization and resistance and the latter deals with cultural life, cultural expression, achievements, and the like (Blum, 1992, p. 14)  [4]  . Some of the accommodations sought by multiculturalists include exemptions from certain laws on religious grounds, special treatment in issues that the majority do unassisted, funding for language schools and associations, special quotas of representation in government bodies, recognition of their cultural codes and practices in the legal system, and some form of self government rights. Inability of the Liberal Democratic Western States to Recognize Multiculturalism Parvin (2009) gives a concise description of debate on multiculturalism and minority rights that begun in the 1990s and how this debate continues to raise important questions in matters concerning the role of the liberal states in citizenship and community.  [5]  From the 1970 to early 1990 was a period when many academics and public opinion drivers gave full support to multiculturalism as the way forward towards a more cohesive and tolerant Europe. It was a period when philosophical literature had gradually become multiculturalist as most of the western European states adopted multiculturalism in an attempt to include minority marginalized groups into the mainstream liberal culture. Multiculturalism was also seen as the only way to protect minority groups from undue pressures of the dominant cultures. As is expected with such philosophical movements that later become political issues, multiculturalism became a liberal political theory and is gradually losing recognition in most European governments. The causes of the waning recognition of multiculturalism by western European states range from crucial ambiguities associated with preferential treatment of minorities to extremist threats to security occasioned by terrorist activities perpetrated under the appearance of multiculturalism. The emergence of terrorist atrocities globally, increased anxieties over the decreased popularity of civic and national identities, and the potential for cultural recognition to pave way for practices that go against liberal principles have made many academics and policy makers to steer clear from everything associated with multiculturalism. It has now become apparent that most liberal European governments do not want to offer special treatment to cultural minorities. The emphasis has been shifted to promoting common bonds that unite rather than divide citizens of democratic states. This argument can best be understood through an analysis of philosophical literature about multiculturalism and the ch anges taking place in the political landscape in most European countries (Parvin, 2009)  [6]  . The rise in cases of terrorism, decreasing relevance in civic and national identity, and the likelihood of some cultural practices being against the principles of liberal states, have made multiculturalism redundant. Liberal governments of the west are gradually finding themselves unable to keep on recognizing and upholding multiculturalism especially in concepts that call for special treatment for minorities and still retain equality for all citizens.  [7]   There was a time when multiculturalism made sense in liberal democracies the world over. There was a mutual agreement between those involved in matters of liberal traditions on how a united Europe, and the whole world by extension, was supposed to look like and how it would best be politically portrayed. It was imperative to acknowledge the fact that every individual possessed the right to live a meaningful and appreciated life, have the freedom of expression, and be free from constraints of belief and activities imposed by other members of the society from the majority groups. It was also important to mutually agree that no group could claim to be morally significant or commanding more respect than others. The state was expected to uphold and protect the constitutional and legal rights of every member of the society and to ensure that all were treated justly. There was a broad consensus among libertarians and even liberal egalitarians on the importance of respecting individual freed om and equality. The aim was to make the world as free as possible from governmental interventions and impositions. The emergence of communism changed the way multiculturalism was perceived in liberal democratic states of the west. The impact of communism on multiculturalism can be traced to social theory theorists like Charles Taylor who came up with social thesis as a critique of liberal political theory.  [8]  Conservative thinkers on the other hand foresaw a break up of national unity and took steps to differentiate between the pursuit of self-respect through isolated individual cases and as minority groups bearing distinct identities. The conservative thinkers were of the opinion that the need for self respect should not be an individual pursuit but it should rather be a pursue for ties that bind the society together. Individualistic concerns were perceived as an impoverished conception of freedom (Parvin, 2009, p. 352)  [9]  . The debate over group versus individual recognition has become a major concern for political theorists and liberal thinkers as well. The importance of groups is seen in the role they play in shaping peoples identity and political affiliation. There have also been deliberative democrats, including Amy Gutmann and Joshua Cohen who propose that group diversity be accepted through a continuous process of deliberating over the policies and institutions that address citizen rights.  [10]   Minorities in most of Europe are declaring their position, and what was sparked off by a need for recognition by the Jewish community has generally spread to other groups which are marginalized because of their lifestyle, race or gender. The themes of the threats posed by the intense debate on mutliculuralism are worrying the majority populations in Europe. The main aim of policy over most of the last centuries have been to assert the position of the majority and their dominion over the minority groups. This segregation is worrying at the least and the culture of victimization is the main reason why the struggle for equality and multiculturalism is so powerful. The dying sentiment about multiculturalism in Europe is best exemplified by French President Nicholas Sarkozys expulsion of Romanian immigrants which was against the EU laws because Romania is an EU member. The action would have warranted the need to take action against Sarkozy but the EU simply turned a blind eye and did nothing. This implied that even the EU feels that the liberal states have reached a point where they can not afford to keep on giving special attention to minority groups in their countries. Modern philosophers so far agree on the fact that multiculturalism and political correctness are important elements in a liberal democracy. Just like the American Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, equality, and pursuit of happiness, the European Court of Human Rights forbids elected governments from interfering with principles aimed at bringing about progress to the citizens. Sarkozys expulsion of Romanian immigrants, and the EUs failure to take action, however shows the decreasing popularity of the European Court of Human Rights. This is mainly because of the dying appeal of advanced elite values that are unworkable. Most people would prefer to be their own judges of what is right and what is wrong. Politically correct liberal consensus is seen as naive and Marxist. In the Netherlands, Geert Wilders who heads the Dutch Nationalist party is known for calling on the government to evict Muslims because, as he alleges, they are destroying the country just on the basis of naive decrees from the European Court of Human Rights.  [11]   Liberal democratic nation-states of the west can longer afford multiculturalism when they address the question about how far they can continue to accommodate immigrants who do not make any attempts to accept their host countrys principles. In most European countries the reluctance of immigrants to weave into the social fabric by adopting the progressive principles poses a threat of disintegrating the society. The situation is even made worse when these immigrants go ahead to agitate for recognition of their cultures at the expense of progress. However governments in European countries are obligated to accept and integrate immigrants who come with different cultural principles and religions.  [12]   When equality is promised to immigrants it leads to a situation where they create resistance whenever they are excluded from welfare policies. This is because the immigrants perceive democratic values as a guarantee for equal representation in decision making processes. The problem comes in when this equality is not well defined leading to a situation where the demands for equality surpass democratic principles. The issue of multiculturalism is most clearly explained using Frasers analogy that the struggle for recognition and the spread of the resources as two mutually interconnected but distinct and irreducible paradigms of justice (Fraser 200, p.125)  [13]  . The two issues focus on two different things. Governments in most liberal nation states of the west today perceive the adoption of multiculturalism as an obstacle to their concerted efforts of forming universal standards of co-existence and integration with different cultures. This makes multiculturalism difficult to maintain in view of the fact nation states are formed and expect to maintain a single dominant culture. The contradicting positions that result from this debate have been developing over the years to an extent that most liberal nation states in Europe are opting to adopt a stand based on moral evaluation of cultural groups rather than cultural equity within a society. The question of cultural identity and recognition has become more complex as nation states start regarding and evaluating moral values of cultures they are supposed to accommodate. The only solution lies in addressing the issue without overemphasizing the importance of one culture over another and by concentrating on how different cultures can be integrated into the current social and public movements. Acceptances of Multiculturalism Most theorists agree on the fact that transnational migrations are gradually eroding the cultural composition of nation-states in the form of citizenship. Rights are being pursued on residency status rather than on citizenship making the distinction between citizen and alien statuses quite unclear. Primarily this is an issue with migrant, or in a politically correct name, guest workers in most liberal democratic countries of Western Europe. This is the first group that agitates for acceptance of multiculturalism. They were originally recruited during the labor shortages of the 1950s that stretched to the 1970s. Their descendants have continued to grow in population in Western Europe over the years even after the recruitment of guest laborers ceased. The termination of recruitment was occasioned by the 1973 oil crisis.  [14]  They have become permanent residents together with their spouses and children. Most of them have never sought for citizenship mainly because they have the sa me civil and social rights as the citizens of these countries and hence consider naturalization processes as a waste of time. They however lack political rights like full citizens. Blum (1992) differentiates antiracism and multiculturalism by stating that the former deals with victimization and resistance and the latter deals with cultural life, cultural expression, achievements, and the like (Blum, 1992, p. 14)  [15]  . Some of the accommodations sought by multiculturalists include exemptions from certain laws on religious grounds, preferential treatment in issues that the majority do unassisted, funding for language schools and associations, special quotas of representation in government bodies, recognition of their cultural codes and practices in the legal system, and some form of self government rights. The other group that supports multiculturalism is those who propose that the noncitizens deserve to be given those rights because they are entitled to universal rights of personhood as stipulated by the international human rights conventions. Proponents of multiculturalism further propose that these rights have a supremacy over national citizenship. Rights increasingly assume universality, legal uniformity, and abstractness, and are defined at the global level. Identities, in contrast, still express particularity and are conceived of as territorially bounded. As an identity, national citizenship . . . still prevails. But in terms of its translation into rights and privileges, it is no longer a significant construction (Soysal 1998, p. 208)  [16]  . Challenge of multiculturalism of citizenship on liberal democratic nation-states Multiculturalism poses a challenge to nation-states basically because of the fact that transnational migrations are gradually eroding the cultural composition of nation-states in the form of citizenship. Rights are being pursued on residency status rather than on citizenship making the distinction between citizen and alien statuses quite unclear. Multiculturalism goes against the foundation of nation-states of the west since most of them were formed by a single dominant culture and expect to maintain this status in order to effectively compete with other states. The contradicting positions that result from this debate have been developing over the years to an extent that most liberal nation states in Europe are opting to adopt a stand based on moral evaluation of cultural groups rather than cultural equity within a society.  [17]   When immigrants take collective action they end up eroding and transcending the nation-state boundaries. This happens against the background of advances in technology, international communication and means of travel which make it possible for immigrants to stay in touch with their homelands. Soysal (1998) sums the effects of transnational migration by stating that: In a world within which rights, and identities as rights, derive their legitimacy from discourses of universalistic personhood, the limits of nationness, or of national citizenship, for that matter, become inventively irrelevant (p. 210-211)  [18]  . . EU and the acceptance of multiculturalism The way forward in the acceptance of multiculturalism in Europe is in negotiating and transcending cultural differences politically. The current scenario is best described by Modood Werbner (1997) who state that the political theatre in which these cultural, ethnic, national and ideological differences must be negotiated is that of the so-called New Europe, a mass of land delimited by cultural and historical enmities and exclusions, frequently of the most barbaric kind (p. 261)  [19]  . Such an analysis is made necessary because, as Modood (1995) state: Critics of multiculturalism have argued à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ that the culture of multiculturalism is not the vital, gradually changing, creative, mimetic, unreflective, unbounded and hybrid culture that anthropologists study. It is a far more reified and politicised imagined entity, the object of representation by elected and self-appointed group spokespersons who stress its inviolability as a sacred domain of collective sovereignty. This assumption is what makes the negotiation of difference so difficult: finding common cultural and political grounds requires the pooling not only of political but also of cultural sovereignty, embodied in public respect for the symbols and values of the other, the incoming stranger with the promotion of anti-racism a central goal (p. 262)  [20]  . The growth of multiculturalism in Western Europe has not gone unchallenged. Most governments have taken steps to check on the development multiculturalism lest it seriously challenges the prerogatives of the nation states. However there is still more to be done especially on the common EU policies on migration and ethnic relations. These EU policies should be well coordinated with those of member states to oversee the necessary restrictions. A good example is the 1995 Schengen Accord that brought about a well coordinated system of implementing stricter controls on illegal immigrations. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty created a common system that could be used to give European citizenship to immigrants from other countries. This treaty offers a control on freedom of movement and the rights of residence in EU member states. Goodwin-Gill (1985) describes these treaties by stating that: Their generality accommodates many shades of opinion, and what really counts is how the scheme of protection is worked out at the local level, particularly with regard to subsidiary rights and procedural guarantees. . . . Even under the European Convention on Human Rights the jurisprudence adopted . . . and the interpretation of civil rights has sanctioned serious limitations upon non nationals entitlement to substantive and procedural due process. Deportation, termination of a residence permit, and the grant or refusal of entry, have all been found by the European Commission not to involve civil rights (p. 566-68)  [21]   It is hard to determine how immigrants and minority dispute a liberated nation and state as it is required by an integrated nationality.  [22]  When comparing this aspect between German and Britain in the early 1990 we find that it is unenthusiastic in the sense that the immigrants and the other cultural minorities challenge as liberated nation. It is clear that the being identified by the nation and state one come from is very important. Being identified by the state and the nation a person comes from is relatively crucial to an individual particularly the immigrants and the cultural minority people. A good example of the minority demands to be identified by their country of origin and location of origin is the Kosovo Albanians in German. Despite being the immigrants and staying in German for many years and acquired the citizenship of the country. Their demand to be identified as natives of their original country still stands. They feel as if they do not belong anywhere that is they cannot be identified as Germans at the same time they are immigrant in Germany. This confusion has attributed to the demands for an allocation of a state where they could identify themselves with. This according to the Albanians will give them a haven to be identified with.  [23]   These particular groups have backing up motives to their claims, for instance the Albanians claims to have an upper hand in the building of Germany. They claim to have a say in the country and therefore the need to be identified not only as immigrants but Kosovo nationality immigrants. By their reorganization, the immigrants will acquire a more legal way to contribute to the building of the inhabited country.  [24]   In German it has been seen that the immigrants have gone to the extent of interfering with the politics of the country. They amount to the biggest group of people who fail to vote in any election. This interference has brought to delays in passing of motions and the general integration of the country. This is one of the factors that has led to failure on growth of many European countries particularly German. Majority of the immigrants and minority cultures contribute little or nothing to the growth of the country yet claim to be recognized. . Conclusion Multiculturalism when taken positively is a good concept as it leads to moral and political recognition of disadvantaged and frequently discriminated groups like African Americans in the United States, women worldwide, and other groups like gays, and the disabled. Europe should continue to accommodate issues of pluri-cultural equality. There will always be challenges in every imaginable form from increase in terrorism to decreased relevance of civic and national identity but the liberal governments of the west should find ways to cope with the demands of multiculturalism instead of closing their doors to other cultures.

Effect Of The Multiculturalism In Europe Politics Essay

Effect Of The Multiculturalism In Europe Politics Essay The establishment of nation-state political systems has always recognized the need for coherence between different cultures and the definition of a nation as territorially united groups. However, cultural differences pose a major threat to the continued unity of many European nation-states. The political demand for acknowledgement of cultural plurality by groups of citizens, especially those who consider themselves to be minorities culturally or ethnically, has grown due to increased interest in multiculturalism in recent years. When analyzed at both scholarly and public levels, the growth of demand for governments to recognize multiculturalism stems from two origins. The first one is based on liberal theories that perceive multiculturalism as a way of protecting individual and cultural rights through the recognition of cultural and ethnic plurality. Social and political agitators of pluralism seek to retain the definition of cultures as closed units and still hope to use the concept of cultural differences as to find solutions to inequalities both politically and socially. The second one is the origin of multiculturalism based on cultural relativism which is a liberal concept that proposes that nation-states have long ignored the fact that cultures are comprised of multiple relations that go beyond political boundaries and are intended to co-exist side by side.  [1]   However with the current rise in terrorism, decreasing relevance in civic and national identity, and the likelihood of some cultural practices being against the principles of liberal states, multiculturalism has become redundant. Liberal governments of the west are gradually finding themselves unable to keep on recognizing and upholding multiculturalism especially in concepts that call for special treatment for minorities and still retain equality for all citizens. The question is why has accommodation of multiculturalism in Europe changed over the past 20 years? Addressing the dilemma of implementing equality in pluri-cultural societies of liberal nation states of Europe, this paper argues and elaborates how multiculturalism become redundant by the liberal democratic western states. Definition of Multiculturalism In political philosophy, multiculturalism is a concept that basically addresses the most appropriate way of responding to diversity in culture and religion within the society. Multiculturalism goes beyond the simple act of tolerating group differences and seeks for the treatment of minority groups as citizens on an equal level with the majority group by recognizing and positively accommodating cultural or traditional differences through the recognition of group-differentiated rights (Kymlicka, 1995). These group-differentiated rights are espoused by minority groups for example people who are exempted from certain rules or laws due to their cultural or religious beliefs or those seeking for language accommodations in public institutions like schools or voting procedures.  [2]  The group-differentiated rights are also sought by indigenous groups or minority nations for the sake of self determination. This is parallel to nationalism. In its precise definition, multiculturalism is an umbrella term that involves moral and political recognition of disadvantaged and frequently discriminated groups like African Americans in the United States, women worldwide, and other groups like gays, and the disabled. However, multiculturalism theorists have always emphasized on immigrants of a country who make up ethnic or religious minorities because of their differences. Some examples of such groups include Muslims in most Western Europe countries and minority nations in some European countries like the Catalans, Romans and the Basque in Spain. Young (1990) identifies three aspects associated with multiculturalism. These are identity, difference, and recognition politics aimed at bringing back value to formerly disrespected identities and altering patterns of representation and communication that had previously marginalized minority groups.  [3]  The concept has also a lot to do with economic interests besides political motives. It is a platform used to remedy political and economic injustices that people claim to have suffered because they belong to a minority status. Blum (1992) differentiates antiracism and multiculturalism by stating that the former deals with victimization and resistance and the latter deals with cultural life, cultural expression, achievements, and the like (Blum, 1992, p. 14)  [4]  . Some of the accommodations sought by multiculturalists include exemptions from certain laws on religious grounds, special treatment in issues that the majority do unassisted, funding for language schools and associations, special quotas of representation in government bodies, recognition of their cultural codes and practices in the legal system, and some form of self government rights. Inability of the Liberal Democratic Western States to Recognize Multiculturalism Parvin (2009) gives a concise description of debate on multiculturalism and minority rights that begun in the 1990s and how this debate continues to raise important questions in matters concerning the role of the liberal states in citizenship and community.  [5]  From the 1970 to early 1990 was a period when many academics and public opinion drivers gave full support to multiculturalism as the way forward towards a more cohesive and tolerant Europe. It was a period when philosophical literature had gradually become multiculturalist as most of the western European states adopted multiculturalism in an attempt to include minority marginalized groups into the mainstream liberal culture. Multiculturalism was also seen as the only way to protect minority groups from undue pressures of the dominant cultures. As is expected with such philosophical movements that later become political issues, multiculturalism became a liberal political theory and is gradually losing recognition in most European governments. The causes of the waning recognition of multiculturalism by western European states range from crucial ambiguities associated with preferential treatment of minorities to extremist threats to security occasioned by terrorist activities perpetrated under the appearance of multiculturalism. The emergence of terrorist atrocities globally, increased anxieties over the decreased popularity of civic and national identities, and the potential for cultural recognition to pave way for practices that go against liberal principles have made many academics and policy makers to steer clear from everything associated with multiculturalism. It has now become apparent that most liberal European governments do not want to offer special treatment to cultural minorities. The emphasis has been shifted to promoting common bonds that unite rather than divide citizens of democratic states. This argument can best be understood through an analysis of philosophical literature about multiculturalism and the ch anges taking place in the political landscape in most European countries (Parvin, 2009)  [6]  . The rise in cases of terrorism, decreasing relevance in civic and national identity, and the likelihood of some cultural practices being against the principles of liberal states, have made multiculturalism redundant. Liberal governments of the west are gradually finding themselves unable to keep on recognizing and upholding multiculturalism especially in concepts that call for special treatment for minorities and still retain equality for all citizens.  [7]   There was a time when multiculturalism made sense in liberal democracies the world over. There was a mutual agreement between those involved in matters of liberal traditions on how a united Europe, and the whole world by extension, was supposed to look like and how it would best be politically portrayed. It was imperative to acknowledge the fact that every individual possessed the right to live a meaningful and appreciated life, have the freedom of expression, and be free from constraints of belief and activities imposed by other members of the society from the majority groups. It was also important to mutually agree that no group could claim to be morally significant or commanding more respect than others. The state was expected to uphold and protect the constitutional and legal rights of every member of the society and to ensure that all were treated justly. There was a broad consensus among libertarians and even liberal egalitarians on the importance of respecting individual freed om and equality. The aim was to make the world as free as possible from governmental interventions and impositions. The emergence of communism changed the way multiculturalism was perceived in liberal democratic states of the west. The impact of communism on multiculturalism can be traced to social theory theorists like Charles Taylor who came up with social thesis as a critique of liberal political theory.  [8]  Conservative thinkers on the other hand foresaw a break up of national unity and took steps to differentiate between the pursuit of self-respect through isolated individual cases and as minority groups bearing distinct identities. The conservative thinkers were of the opinion that the need for self respect should not be an individual pursuit but it should rather be a pursue for ties that bind the society together. Individualistic concerns were perceived as an impoverished conception of freedom (Parvin, 2009, p. 352)  [9]  . The debate over group versus individual recognition has become a major concern for political theorists and liberal thinkers as well. The importance of groups is seen in the role they play in shaping peoples identity and political affiliation. There have also been deliberative democrats, including Amy Gutmann and Joshua Cohen who propose that group diversity be accepted through a continuous process of deliberating over the policies and institutions that address citizen rights.  [10]   Minorities in most of Europe are declaring their position, and what was sparked off by a need for recognition by the Jewish community has generally spread to other groups which are marginalized because of their lifestyle, race or gender. The themes of the threats posed by the intense debate on mutliculuralism are worrying the majority populations in Europe. The main aim of policy over most of the last centuries have been to assert the position of the majority and their dominion over the minority groups. This segregation is worrying at the least and the culture of victimization is the main reason why the struggle for equality and multiculturalism is so powerful. The dying sentiment about multiculturalism in Europe is best exemplified by French President Nicholas Sarkozys expulsion of Romanian immigrants which was against the EU laws because Romania is an EU member. The action would have warranted the need to take action against Sarkozy but the EU simply turned a blind eye and did nothing. This implied that even the EU feels that the liberal states have reached a point where they can not afford to keep on giving special attention to minority groups in their countries. Modern philosophers so far agree on the fact that multiculturalism and political correctness are important elements in a liberal democracy. Just like the American Constitution guarantees freedom of speech, equality, and pursuit of happiness, the European Court of Human Rights forbids elected governments from interfering with principles aimed at bringing about progress to the citizens. Sarkozys expulsion of Romanian immigrants, and the EUs failure to take action, however shows the decreasing popularity of the European Court of Human Rights. This is mainly because of the dying appeal of advanced elite values that are unworkable. Most people would prefer to be their own judges of what is right and what is wrong. Politically correct liberal consensus is seen as naive and Marxist. In the Netherlands, Geert Wilders who heads the Dutch Nationalist party is known for calling on the government to evict Muslims because, as he alleges, they are destroying the country just on the basis of naive decrees from the European Court of Human Rights.  [11]   Liberal democratic nation-states of the west can longer afford multiculturalism when they address the question about how far they can continue to accommodate immigrants who do not make any attempts to accept their host countrys principles. In most European countries the reluctance of immigrants to weave into the social fabric by adopting the progressive principles poses a threat of disintegrating the society. The situation is even made worse when these immigrants go ahead to agitate for recognition of their cultures at the expense of progress. However governments in European countries are obligated to accept and integrate immigrants who come with different cultural principles and religions.  [12]   When equality is promised to immigrants it leads to a situation where they create resistance whenever they are excluded from welfare policies. This is because the immigrants perceive democratic values as a guarantee for equal representation in decision making processes. The problem comes in when this equality is not well defined leading to a situation where the demands for equality surpass democratic principles. The issue of multiculturalism is most clearly explained using Frasers analogy that the struggle for recognition and the spread of the resources as two mutually interconnected but distinct and irreducible paradigms of justice (Fraser 200, p.125)  [13]  . The two issues focus on two different things. Governments in most liberal nation states of the west today perceive the adoption of multiculturalism as an obstacle to their concerted efforts of forming universal standards of co-existence and integration with different cultures. This makes multiculturalism difficult to maintain in view of the fact nation states are formed and expect to maintain a single dominant culture. The contradicting positions that result from this debate have been developing over the years to an extent that most liberal nation states in Europe are opting to adopt a stand based on moral evaluation of cultural groups rather than cultural equity within a society. The question of cultural identity and recognition has become more complex as nation states start regarding and evaluating moral values of cultures they are supposed to accommodate. The only solution lies in addressing the issue without overemphasizing the importance of one culture over another and by concentrating on how different cultures can be integrated into the current social and public movements. Acceptances of Multiculturalism Most theorists agree on the fact that transnational migrations are gradually eroding the cultural composition of nation-states in the form of citizenship. Rights are being pursued on residency status rather than on citizenship making the distinction between citizen and alien statuses quite unclear. Primarily this is an issue with migrant, or in a politically correct name, guest workers in most liberal democratic countries of Western Europe. This is the first group that agitates for acceptance of multiculturalism. They were originally recruited during the labor shortages of the 1950s that stretched to the 1970s. Their descendants have continued to grow in population in Western Europe over the years even after the recruitment of guest laborers ceased. The termination of recruitment was occasioned by the 1973 oil crisis.  [14]  They have become permanent residents together with their spouses and children. Most of them have never sought for citizenship mainly because they have the sa me civil and social rights as the citizens of these countries and hence consider naturalization processes as a waste of time. They however lack political rights like full citizens. Blum (1992) differentiates antiracism and multiculturalism by stating that the former deals with victimization and resistance and the latter deals with cultural life, cultural expression, achievements, and the like (Blum, 1992, p. 14)  [15]  . Some of the accommodations sought by multiculturalists include exemptions from certain laws on religious grounds, preferential treatment in issues that the majority do unassisted, funding for language schools and associations, special quotas of representation in government bodies, recognition of their cultural codes and practices in the legal system, and some form of self government rights. The other group that supports multiculturalism is those who propose that the noncitizens deserve to be given those rights because they are entitled to universal rights of personhood as stipulated by the international human rights conventions. Proponents of multiculturalism further propose that these rights have a supremacy over national citizenship. Rights increasingly assume universality, legal uniformity, and abstractness, and are defined at the global level. Identities, in contrast, still express particularity and are conceived of as territorially bounded. As an identity, national citizenship . . . still prevails. But in terms of its translation into rights and privileges, it is no longer a significant construction (Soysal 1998, p. 208)  [16]  . Challenge of multiculturalism of citizenship on liberal democratic nation-states Multiculturalism poses a challenge to nation-states basically because of the fact that transnational migrations are gradually eroding the cultural composition of nation-states in the form of citizenship. Rights are being pursued on residency status rather than on citizenship making the distinction between citizen and alien statuses quite unclear. Multiculturalism goes against the foundation of nation-states of the west since most of them were formed by a single dominant culture and expect to maintain this status in order to effectively compete with other states. The contradicting positions that result from this debate have been developing over the years to an extent that most liberal nation states in Europe are opting to adopt a stand based on moral evaluation of cultural groups rather than cultural equity within a society.  [17]   When immigrants take collective action they end up eroding and transcending the nation-state boundaries. This happens against the background of advances in technology, international communication and means of travel which make it possible for immigrants to stay in touch with their homelands. Soysal (1998) sums the effects of transnational migration by stating that: In a world within which rights, and identities as rights, derive their legitimacy from discourses of universalistic personhood, the limits of nationness, or of national citizenship, for that matter, become inventively irrelevant (p. 210-211)  [18]  . . EU and the acceptance of multiculturalism The way forward in the acceptance of multiculturalism in Europe is in negotiating and transcending cultural differences politically. The current scenario is best described by Modood Werbner (1997) who state that the political theatre in which these cultural, ethnic, national and ideological differences must be negotiated is that of the so-called New Europe, a mass of land delimited by cultural and historical enmities and exclusions, frequently of the most barbaric kind (p. 261)  [19]  . Such an analysis is made necessary because, as Modood (1995) state: Critics of multiculturalism have argued à ¢Ã¢â€š ¬Ã‚ ¦ that the culture of multiculturalism is not the vital, gradually changing, creative, mimetic, unreflective, unbounded and hybrid culture that anthropologists study. It is a far more reified and politicised imagined entity, the object of representation by elected and self-appointed group spokespersons who stress its inviolability as a sacred domain of collective sovereignty. This assumption is what makes the negotiation of difference so difficult: finding common cultural and political grounds requires the pooling not only of political but also of cultural sovereignty, embodied in public respect for the symbols and values of the other, the incoming stranger with the promotion of anti-racism a central goal (p. 262)  [20]  . The growth of multiculturalism in Western Europe has not gone unchallenged. Most governments have taken steps to check on the development multiculturalism lest it seriously challenges the prerogatives of the nation states. However there is still more to be done especially on the common EU policies on migration and ethnic relations. These EU policies should be well coordinated with those of member states to oversee the necessary restrictions. A good example is the 1995 Schengen Accord that brought about a well coordinated system of implementing stricter controls on illegal immigrations. The 1992 Maastricht Treaty created a common system that could be used to give European citizenship to immigrants from other countries. This treaty offers a control on freedom of movement and the rights of residence in EU member states. Goodwin-Gill (1985) describes these treaties by stating that: Their generality accommodates many shades of opinion, and what really counts is how the scheme of protection is worked out at the local level, particularly with regard to subsidiary rights and procedural guarantees. . . . Even under the European Convention on Human Rights the jurisprudence adopted . . . and the interpretation of civil rights has sanctioned serious limitations upon non nationals entitlement to substantive and procedural due process. Deportation, termination of a residence permit, and the grant or refusal of entry, have all been found by the European Commission not to involve civil rights (p. 566-68)  [21]   It is hard to determine how immigrants and minority dispute a liberated nation and state as it is required by an integrated nationality.  [22]  When comparing this aspect between German and Britain in the early 1990 we find that it is unenthusiastic in the sense that the immigrants and the other cultural minorities challenge as liberated nation. It is clear that the being identified by the nation and state one come from is very important. Being identified by the state and the nation a person comes from is relatively crucial to an individual particularly the immigrants and the cultural minority people. A good example of the minority demands to be identified by their country of origin and location of origin is the Kosovo Albanians in German. Despite being the immigrants and staying in German for many years and acquired the citizenship of the country. Their demand to be identified as natives of their original country still stands. They feel as if they do not belong anywhere that is they cannot be identified as Germans at the same time they are immigrant in Germany. This confusion has attributed to the demands for an allocation of a state where they could identify themselves with. This according to the Albanians will give them a haven to be identified with.  [23]   These particular groups have backing up motives to their claims, for instance the Albanians claims to have an upper hand in the building of Germany. They claim to have a say in the country and therefore the need to be identified not only as immigrants but Kosovo nationality immigrants. By their reorganization, the immigrants will acquire a more legal way to contribute to the building of the inhabited country.  [24]   In German it has been seen that the immigrants have gone to the extent of interfering with the politics of the country. They amount to the biggest group of people who fail to vote in any election. This interference has brought to delays in passing of motions and the general integration of the country. This is one of the factors that has led to failure on growth of many European countries particularly German. Majority of the immigrants and minority cultures contribute little or nothing to the growth of the country yet claim to be recognized. . Conclusion Multiculturalism when taken positively is a good concept as it leads to moral and political recognition of disadvantaged and frequently discriminated groups like African Americans in the United States, women worldwide, and other groups like gays, and the disabled. Europe should continue to accommodate issues of pluri-cultural equality. There will always be challenges in every imaginable form from increase in terrorism to decreased relevance of civic and national identity but the liberal governments of the west should find ways to cope with the demands of multiculturalism instead of closing their doors to other cultures.

The Role of Women in Society :: Sociology History Females Gender Essays

The Role of Women in Society   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  The role women play in today’s society is a drastic change from the previous role. Women used to be confined to the superiority of the man. Physically, mentally, and emotionally abused, belittled, embarrassed, and silenced. These are just a few examples of the emotion from the isolated treatment of the past. A woman’s role in today’s society is more valued than ever before.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Women have always been essential to society. Fifty to seventy years ago, a woman was no more than a house wife, caregiver, and at their husbands beck and call. Women had no personal opinion, no voice, and no freedom. They were suppressed by the sociable beliefs of man. A woman’s respectable place was always behind the masculine frame of a man. In the past a woman’s inferiority was not voluntary but instilled by elder women, and/or force. Many, would like to know why? Why was a woman such a threat to a man? Was it just about man’s ability to control, and overpower a woman, or was there a serious threat? Well, everyone has there own opinion about the cause of the past oppression of woman, it is currently still a popular argument today.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Thanks to our strong, motivated, committed, dedicated, and determined women: who fought for the valued rights of woman everywhere. Without all the feminist, and woman activist women would probably still be oppress. Thank you to women like Eleanor Smeal, Bonnie Briggs, Maya Angleou, and Ms. Bensedrine, and Sadie Alexander (founder of DST).   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Women today have excelled to unreachable heights. Today women are out in the workforce, the professional world, the military, and there are those that are still at home, but by choose. A woman’s value has skyrocketed over these past decades. A woman today can do anything a man can and more.

Differentiation: What is it? Essay -- essays papers

Differentiation: What is it? Today in education different abilities are being acknowledged on a regular basis. So a common description being used for the â€Å"perfect† classroom which accounts for the variety of instruction and activities is a differentiated classroom. This phrase is thrown around and many teachers may not understand how a differentiated classroom works. â€Å"In a differentiated classroom, the teacher assumes that learners have differing needs. Therefore the teacher proactively plans a variety of ways to ‘get at’ and express learning† (Tomlinson, 2001, p. 3). Planning for a variety of teaching strategies does not mean giving more work to the smart children. Instead the teacher must assess who understands the material, who is struggling, who needs to be challenged and decide what or how to teach the students from there (Tomlinson, 2001). Differentiation should occur naturally and involve individual, class and group work to allow for the differences in all students and all subjects of study (Tomlinson, 2001). Probably the most important aspect of differentiation is the idea of challenging all learners at their level instead of giving extra work to those students whom learn the concepts quickly. Differentiation in Classrooms A struggle for many teachers could be the idea of implementing differentiation in their classrooms. Making twenty-four lesson plans for the twenty-four children in a class is not practical or appropriate. Children should all be learning the same basic ideas in differentiated lessons but how much as well as how a child learns is what will vary (Tomlinson, 2001). Tomlinson describes three major ways in which the content that children are learning can be differentiated: readiness, inte... ...cle describes how teachers normal integrate differentiation into a classroom. Smith, M. K., (2002). Howard Gardner, multiple intelligences and education. Retrieved February 10, 2005, from http://www.infed.org/thinkers/gardner.htm. This article describes Howard Gardner’s developed his ideas about multiple intelligences. Theroux, P., (2004, June 20). Differentiated instruction. Retrieved April 20, 2005, from http://members.shaw.ca/priscillatheroux/differentiating.html. This article is written by a teacher and describes ways in which differentiated instruction can be implemented. Academically Gifted (2005). Retrieved April 27, 2005 from EBSCO/ERIC The website provided definitions for words from a thersaurus. Special Needs Students. (2005). Retrieved April 27, 2005 from EBSCO/ERIC The website provided definitions for words from a thesaurus.

Adinkra

Adinkra symbols, like many other visual symbols, have been used over many years to communicate, represent and characterize a myriad of ideas, beliefs and concepts. Originally created by the people of Gyaman, Adinkra has grown to become the most extensively used and widely known traditional symbolic art in Ghana and to an appreciable extent, West Africa. By carefully considering the depth of wisdom in the meanings of these symbols, is not surprising that they are often linked with a host of several proverbial maxims.The very essence of the word ‘Adinkra’ is ‘farewell’; as such, every symbol that is encapsulated in the whole body of Adinkra communicates or corresponds to a unique message or idea. Documented history has it that, as far back as the nineteenth century, unique Adinkra symbols were used in customary and traditional rites of society to depict the ideological stance of that society as regards to the ceremony or event in question. The art was showcase d in various forms during festivals, funerals, marriages among others.Today, the use of Adinkra has been widely extended to cover almost every facet of life. In recent times, Adinkra symbols have become a suitable choice of branding the modern, competitive, and trendy Ghanaian clothing lifestyle. Over the years, Adinkra has gone beyond traditional cloth-making designs and has been fashionably incorporated into the designing of t-shirts, buttons, linen fabric clothes. Today, young people would prefer t-shirts with screen-printing inscriptions like ‘Me firi Ghana’, with an Adinkra like ‘Gye Nyame’ boldly designed beneath.Indeed, some acclaimed Ghanaian fashion designers like Mawuli Okudzeto, Kofi Ansah among others, have received international recognition by carving such niches for themselves, with popular brand names like MKOGH and PKOG, just to mention a few. Beyond that, apparels like footwear have also had a taste of Adinkra art. Artisans who make local f ootwear like sandals, slippers and ‘ahenema’ have also included these symbols in their designs. For instance, a locally made ‘ahenema’ has a carefully designed Adinkra symbol of three concentric rings encircling each other, known as ‘adinkrahene’ at the nose of each slipper.One other art is the design of bags with Adinkra symbols woven or sewn on the surface with fabric, (often kente pieces). The most popular addition to this art collection is the use of these designs in making jewellery and other fashion accessories. It is popular to see rings, pendants, earrings, necklaces, anklets, beads and many others designed with symbols like ‘ohene aniwa’, ‘epa’, ‘nkonsonkonson’, etc. In Ghana, the Precious Mineral Marketing Company (PMMC) is a typical example of an enterprise in this regard.Thus, on the international stage, Adinkra symbols have been employed as one of, if not the best indigenous symbols that give all manner of clothing, a unique fashion identity easily recognisable as truly Ghanaian. Quite apart from clothing, these symbols have formed part of locally designed fine and visual art. This has been such that, in creation of several Ghanaian sculptures, Adinkra has been one of the most recognisable themes. There many instances of metal and wooden sculpture designed into Adinkra. More often than not, these visual and fine arts have been used by individuals for decorative purposes.It is now commonplace to see a wall hanging in someone’s home, at the lobby of a corporate institution or in the sitting area of an afro-centric restaurant with the caption ‘welcome’ and a popular symbol like ‘Gye Nyame’ underneath it. Without a shred of doubt any Ghanaian who sees this in any institution in any distant part of the world, feels quite homey and comfortable, to some extent, immediately. Moreover, the designs of wooden plaques lately have also adopted Adinkra symbols. For instance, African institutions of late present Adinkra-designed plaques to individuals and entities, as gifts and awards for splendid performances.Woodcarvers as at today, still design stools for domestic as well as traditional purposes with these popular symbols. In Akan traditional homes, stools often known as ‘asesedwa’ are carved out of wood with these designs. Today as a unique of catching up with the west, local artisans have modernized their design of home furniture placed in areas like the living room, dining room and the study. Beautiful and attractive-looking sets are being carved daily. A common example is wooden coffee-table, which has an Adinkra symbol like ‘sankofa’ at the base with a glass plane on the surface.Hence it is ordinary to see the prolific use of Adinkra in fine and visual art because of the inherent artistic merits they possess. In present day, the use of symbols for trademarks and emblems cannot be over-emphasized. In corporate branding and marketing, many institutions have resorted to the use of symbols, both tactile and visual, as a mark of exclusivity and Adinkra are symbols of no exception. There are countless examples of institutions of all sorts who have adopted these symbols as logos, emblem, etc.In Ghana, for instance, a corporate institution like HFC Bank uses the symbol ‘ebankese’ as its corporate logo. Interestingly, Vodafone Ghana has designed their recharge cards such that whichever denomination has a long strip Adinkra symbols in front of the card. A popular plastics company by name ‘Strong Plast Ltd’ also uses the popular symbol, ‘Gye Nyame’ as a brand name for its plastic chairs. A very popular flour mill also uses ‘sankofa’ as the brand name of it flour. On a lighter side, along the coastal area it is fun to see fishermen decorate their canoes with these symbols as an interesting way of ownership.

Why Online Shopping Is Making a Trend?

It seems everyone loves online deals, online discounts, online coupons and more! Millions of people are patiently browsing the web in search for the best online deals of the day and the best online discount websites. A realization settled in me then that in tough economic times, people become wiser. That somehow propelled consumers to browse for the best deals on the web. Life is now highly digitalized! Thus, online shopping and online coupon are now very popular and certainly a trend for years to come.Moms, budget enthusiasts, frugal people or shall I say wise consumers just can’t resist the convenience online coupons and online deals can offer. You can’t blame shoppers to find the best deals and eye-popping discount prices to maximize savings by going through the best online deal websites. Take ShopAtHome for instance, it provides online shoppers the best deals, best products with the best price with just a few clicks.The most amazing part of it, is its cash back prog ram where you can get as much as 50 percent of the price credited to your account which enable you to buy more needed items. Now who wouldn’t love deep discounts made possible by ShopAtHome and other online discount websites? Through them you can freely access catalogs, do comparison shopping, cash-back, exclusive daily deals from online retailers. Plus free shipping is recently a trend too.Coupons decline for almost a couple of decades and has just come back on track in 2009 which also mark the first year of coupon boom. Sometimes, things happen for a reason. The significant shift of the consumers shopping trend is undoubtedly caused by the the current economic status. People now opt to use the internet to find the hottest deals, online discounts, online coupons which also provide shoppers the best place to buy, how they buy and take advantage of promotions.